Examples of Distortions
Taiwan: Signification of Koreans was relatively common because most Koreans were Chinese in origin. (Senior High School, History (2), National Institute for Compilation and Chinese Translation, 1994.)

The Philippines: People; Koreans are, like the Chinese and the Japanese, Mongoloids. People in the northern part of Korea are descendents of the Mongols and are generally tall, fair skinned and have a deep tone of voice. The people in the southern region are from a mixed heritage of Malaysians and Koreans, and they are generally smaller and have darker skin tones. (Secondary School history, The History of Asian Countries, Publication and Trading Co., 1994.)

Comment
People of the world belong to one of the three general categories of races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid or Negroid. Koreans belong to the Mongoloid race. The Mongoloid race is known to have originated near the Baikal Lake in Siberia. Mongoloid characteristics include high cheekbones and inner eyelids which are well suited for living in cold and harsh conditions such as in Siberia. Mongoloid can be further categorized as the Old Mongol or the New Mongol which differ in physical characteristics and language. The time when the two Mongols divided into different groups is still not known; however, the two groups have divided even further into many different groups. Koreans belong to the New Mongol which is composed of the Ugrians, the Finns, the Turks, the Mongols, and the Tungus. The New Mongols are also divided into the Ural language family and the Altai language family. Korean belongs to the Altai language family.

Koreans settled in Manchuria (present-day northeastern China) and the Korean Peninsula as a homogeneous people. That Korean myths and local religions have their origin in the shamanism of the Siberian region supports this view. The underlying culture of Korea has the same roots as the cultures of the Siberian region because the origin of Korean people and their lineage are very closely linked with the people of the Siberian region. Therefore, claims that Koreans are descendants of the Chinese due to the geographical and cultural closeness between Korea and China or that the people in the northern half of the peninsula are Mongols while the people of the southern half are Malaysians are false and are not based on any substantiated facts.

Examples of Distortions
Hungary: Koreas prehistoric age is not known to the world because human skeletal remains from the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Era have not been discovered on the Korean Peninsula. (Peoples of the World, Gondolot, 1984.)

Czech: The existence of Koreas prehistoric age is not mentioned, nor is the origin of Korean history. Only the names of the countries during the Three Kingdoms Period, Goryeo, and Joseon dynasties are cited. (Encyclopedia, Odeon, 1993.)

Comment
There are some sources, for example Polish reference materials, which mention Koreas Neolithic Era. However, a claim that no Paleolithic Era existed in Korea appears in some sources due to the misconception that Koreas history is relatively short compared to that of China or Japan. These historical distortions concerning Koreas ancient history are the consequence of either ignorance or a failure to appreciate the value of archaeological remains found in Korea. The problem is exacerbated by an attempt to understand China and Korea separately even though China and the Korean Peninsula are contiguous.

The first discovery of a Paleolithic site in Korea was made in the 1930s at Donggwangjin Cheongsong-gn Hamgyeongbuk-do Province along the Duman River. However, Korean scholars could not be certain about the existence of the Paleolithic era in Korea for a period of time because no other Paleolithic sites were subsequently found.

In 1962, however, another Paleolithic site was discovered in Gulpo-ri Unggi-gn Hamgyeongbuk-do Province. The Korean archaeological community became even more certain of the countrys Paleolithic origins with the discovery of a new site at Seokjang-ri Chungcheongnam-do Province, which was excavated from 1964 to 1972. The Seokjang-ri site is as of yet the oldest Paleolithic site discovered in Korea, and it contains not only relics from the Paleolithic era, but also relics from the Mesolithic and the Neolithic era. For Korean archaeologists, the Seokjang-ri site is therefore a place of great significance. In addition, the Gumgul Cave in Danyang and the Black Moru Cave in Sangwon which were found near Paleolithic sites have been carbon dated back some 600,000 to 700,000 years. The Pillemot Cave on Jejudo, an island which constitutes the southern most part of Korea, has been discovered to contain Paleolithic relics also. Even some Paleolithic sites, which date back as recently as 10,000 years ago have been found. In total there are about 25 Paleolithic sites which have been discovered so far in Korea. It has been discovered that the Paleolithic Era primitive people, from Homo Erectus to Homo Sapiens Sapiens, lived in Korea. On Mt. Seungnisan in Pyeonganbuk-do Province, a jawbone of belonging to a Homo Sapiens Sapiens was found, and scholars have named this artifact the Mt. Seungnisan Man after the name of place where it was discovered. Studies have found that this particular individual lived in the Paleolithic Era sometime between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago. Now it is widely accepted that there was a Paleolithic Era not only in China and Manchuria, but also in Korea.

Examples of Distortions
Japan: The Chinese culture peaked on the Korean Peninsula following the establishment of the four Guns including Nak-rang by the Han Dynastys Emperor Wu of China at about 108 B.C ... (High School, History of Japan, Ziyushobo Publishers, 1994.)

Czech: The beginning of Korea goes back to B.C. 2 to the first century A.D. (The Encyclopedia of World Geography, Columbus, 1994.)

Comment
Japanese history textbooks fail to mention Gojoseon (Dan-gun Joseon), the first nation state in Korea which is believed to have been established about 2,333 B.C. Instead, these textbooks have Korean history begin with the four commanderies of the Chinese Han Dynasty. Consequently, the beginning of the Korean history is pushed forward to a much later date, and it is implied that Korea was under Chinese rule from the very beginning of its history. This is a gross distortion, which omits an entire portion of Koreas national legacy. Furthermore, Japanese history textbooks omit any reference to Koreas Bronze Age and, instead, stress the influence of Chinese culture over Korea.

However, it is a widely accepted view both in Korea and Japan that Koreas Bronze Age culture, which started at about the 10th century B.C., significantly influenced the culture of Yayoi Japan. Therefore, a correct description of Koreas ancient history would start with the fact of the existence of human habitation on the Korean Peninsula from prehistoric times, acknowledge the existence of Gojoseon as, Koreas first nation, and credit Koreas Bronze Age Culture for its influence on the development of Japans own Bronze Age culture.

The idea that Korean history began with Gija Joseon comes from the idea that Gija of Chinas Yin Dynasty came to the Korean Peninsula and established Gija Joseon. The truth about the Gija Joseon idea is that it was used and repeatedly emphasized by Japanese colonialists to deny the autonomy of Korean history. At present, Korean scholars do not acknowledge Gija Joseon because the historical records of China which are used to support Gija Joseon are flawed, and there are facts which prove that Koreas Bronze Age culture is a branch of the northern Siberian culture which is completely different from Chinas Bronze Age culture.

A prevailing view in Korean academic circles is that Koreas Bronze Age began at about the 10th century B.C. Moreover, Koreas Bronze Age culture is thought to have been influenced by the Karasuk-Tagar Bronze Age culture of Siberia, when it spread onto the Korean Peninsula and Liaoning Seong through northern Manchuria. Therefore, the beginning of Korean history should start with the upper historical limits established by Korean archaeological findings.

The examples mentioned above indicate that Korean history began under Chinese rule and that Japanese history is longer than Koreas. These distortions of history deserve to be pointed out and corrected.

Examples of Distortions
US: Chinese Tang Dynasty in fact ruled Silla after Goguryeo and Baekje had been destroyed (Secondary School Social Studies, World Religions, Brown, 1993. ? Corrected in 1994 edition) Japan: Yi-Joseon became Mings colony (High School, Detailed World History, YamaKawa Publishers, 1994.)

Comment
According to Koreas foundation legend, the beginning of the nations history goes back to the days of Go-Joseon, the first nation established by Dan-gun wanggeom in about 2,333 B.C. This is a source of great pride among Koreans.

During its long history, however, Korea was subject to constant invasions from neighboring countries including China and Japan and at one time faced the prospect of total collapse. However, Koreans have never ceased to guard their autonomous identity by fiercely resisting and fighting against the invasive forces.

Historically, Korea maintained an inseparably close relationship with her neighbor, China. Such a relationship was maintained through tributary diplomacy which was a formal acknowledgment of the reality of Chinas superior power. Tribute was a gesture of friendship made when two countries made official contact and was a kind of economic barter of rare items.

From the Three Kingdoms Period, Korea carried out tributary diplomacy with China, and official contacts between the two countries were maintained accordingly. Hierarchy between the two countries was established through the tributary relationship. However, tributary diplomacy did not mean that China had colonized Korea nor that Koreas independence had been destroyed. Cultural exchanges and commercial trade were based on the understanding and acknowledgement of Chinas superior power. Many countries in East Asia including Korea were able to achieve political stability and satisfy economic and cultural needs by approaching China through this form of diplomacy.

Past of the evidence indication Koreas independence was the use of an independent reign title, which expressed and enhanced the nations sense of sovereignty. In the even that China threatened or infringed upon Koreas independence, Korea boldly resisted and fought back. For example, Goguryeo fought against and annihilated the Chinese invaders of the Su () and Tang () Dynasties. Silla ran the Tang forces out of Korea and unified the Three Kingdoms (Silla, Baekje and Goguryeo). Goryeo attempted to conquer the Liaodong region of China during the latter days of the Goryeo period. Similar examples can be found in the case of Joseon which had a tributary relationship with the Ming (٥) Dynasty of China. However, Joseon planned a war against Ming and trained its military when Ming violated Joseons autonomy. In light of these historic facts, describing Joseon as a colony of Ming China is a distortion and a misunderstanding of traditional diplomacy in East Asia.

Hence, it is a clear misreading of history for foreign textbooks to describe Korea as Chinas former colony. As a matter of fact, this is a most serious distortion of history and must be corrected as a matter of priority.

Examples of Distortions
Japan: The Yamato Administration, which ruled Japan, expanded its power to the southern region of Korea in about the 4th century in search of steel and the superior technology of the continent(Middle School Social Studies, History, Kyoiku Publishers, 1993)

US: The southern part of Korea is marked as part of an Imna Japanese outpost on a map. (Secondary School Social Studies, World Cultures, Prentice Hall, 1993)

Comment
The argument that ancient Japan ruled the southern region of Korea (the ancient Japanese military outpost, Mimana (369~562), is a story trumped up by the Japanese imperialists during the late 19th century while Japan legitimizing its occupation of Korea.

According to this story, ancient Silla and Baekje sent tribute to Japans Yamato Administration. Then, the Yamato Administration invaded the southeastern region of the Korean Peninsula in about 369 and established a Japanese military outpost in the Gaya region. The Yamato Administration is said to have colonized and ruled this area for about 200 years until 562. However, there are serious flaws in this interpretation of history.

First Korean scholars believe that the Nihon Seogi,(Ѻ), on which Japanese scholars base the Japanese outpost idea was authored by Baekje exiles or their descendants. Because of this, it is very possible that the author(s), who were exiled from a ruined kingdom (Baekje) embellished their story to favor Japan or to enhance the prestige of Japans rulers. Other evidence that the records in the Nihon Seogi are not true is found in the Kojiki, which was written eight years before the Nihon Seogi. The Kojiki does not contain any record of any Japanese military outpost in Korea.

Second, considering the power structure of East Asia, Japan was not capable of advancing onto the Korean Peninsula from the fourth to the sixth century. At that time, no unified nation existed in Japan. Furthermore, Japan did not have the shipbuilding skills to build ships to carry out a large-scale military operation overseas. In other words, China was the most powerful country followed by Korea. Japan was very weak at that time. Third, assuming, for argument sake, that a Japanese military outpost had indeed existed in Korea, it would then be natural to assume that ruins or artifacts remaining from that era would remain. For example, artifacts from Goguryeos King Gwanggaeto, were discovered in Gyeongju. Gyeongju was the capital of Silla, but Goguryeo had control over Silla at that time. Contrary to this, not a single artifact indicating Japans supposed presence in Korea has been found in the region even though Japan allegedly ruled the region for about 200 years. This is another piece of evidence suggesting that Japans allegation that it had colonized the southeastern part of Korea is false.

Fourth, from the end of the fourth century, many Baekje people emigrated to Japan. During their journey to Japan, Baekje people stayed in the Gaya region. A commercial house was established for those staying in Gaya at that time, and Japan may have distorted this commercial house into the Japanese military outpost.

No one denies that Japanese pirated from the western part of Japan invaded and looted the southeastern shores of the Korean Peninsula, and because of this, there were military confrontations between the ancient kingdoms of Korea and the Japanese pirates. However, it is a great distortion of history to argue that Japan conquered the southern region of the Korean Peninsula and ruled the region for a long time through its military outpost.

The question of whether there was a Japanese military outpost is the subject of intense debate between Korea and Japan in regard to ancient relations between the two counties. Korean scholars continue to argue and have provide proof that the Japanese military outpost idea is a fabrication of the Japanese colonialists. Any reference to this should therefore be stricken from the textbooks and reference materials of other countries.

Examples of Distortions
Japan: Thereafter, the Japanese government took an aggressive stance during the talks with Joseon after a Japanese naval vessel was fired upon in 1875 (the incident) while it was training and surveying along the shore near Hanseong (Seoul). (Middle School Social Studies, History; Japans Change and the World, Chyukyo Publishers, 1992.)

Meanwhile, Saiko Takamori and Itagaki Taisuke tried to conquer Joseon by dispatching troops, because Joseon did not accept Japans demands.(Middle School Social Studies, History, Nihon-syoseki Publishers, 1993.)

Comment
The facts of the Unyo incident which occurred in 1875 were distorted by the Japanese at the time they began their imperialistic expansion. After having opened its ports to the United States in 1854, Japan achieved rapid modernization over two decades and then began to turn its ambitions toward the Asian continent, including Korea. While Japan pursuing diplomatic talks with Korea (at that time, Joseon), some radical imperialists in Japan insisted that Japan should invade Korea as it had done in the past. However, their arguments met with opposition from the moderates and a gradual approach to the invasion of Korea was then planned. In order to aid such a gradual invasion plan, Japan conducted surveillance near the shoreline of the island of Ganghwado. This region is a part of Koreas territorial waters and the gateway to Koreas capital, Seoul. The surveillance was conducted by a naval battleship, the Unyo which had been purchased from England. The Joseon naval forces, which were then guarding the shorelines, fired on the Unyo so as to prevent it from approaching the shore.

At that time, not only was there a lack of means to communicate between vessels and guards on shore but also the Korean Navy was on alert due to the frequent appearance of Western naval vessels along the shores leading to Seoul. The Unyo responded by firing its canons and approached closer to the Korean coast. With a show of military power, the Japanese protested against the actions of the Joseon naval forces and claimed that they had approached the shore for water. Furthermore, the Japanese navy demanded an apology from the Korean Government and a trade agreement. Such steps taken by the Japanese in approaching Korea are similar to those taken by Western vessels.

In the following spring (February 1876), Japan sent six naval vessels and 500 soldiers to Korea headed by a man named Kurota, to demand an apology from the Korean Government for the Unyo Incident and an official trade treaty. At that time in Korea, there was strong opposition to opening up the country to trade. However, Korea ultimately had no choice but to sign the 1876 Treaty of Ganghwado because of the strong support of those in favor of opening the country to foreign trade, the use of military force by Japan and the influence of China. The Treaty of Ganghwado forced Korea to open up its harbors and provided an opportunity for the unrestricted economic activities of Japanese merchants in Korea. While the Treaty of Ganghwado was the first step in the opening of Korea to the world, it was, at the same time, the first step in Japans plan to invade Korea. Thereafter, Japan continuously found ways to further its incursion into Korea.

The Unyo Incident was carefully orchestrated by Japan in order to induce the Korean Navy to attack first, so they could use this as an excuse to demand a trade treaty. However, Japan tries to shift the responsibility for this incident onto Korea, implying that it was caused by a provocation by the Korean Navy. If Japan had not planned the incident, they would have retaliated against Korea with force. Moreover, Japan would not have demanded or pursued the Treaty of Ganghwado. The claims made by Japan about the Unyo Incident are a classic example of its attempts to distort historic events.

Examples of Distortions
Rumania: Economic development in Korea is partially based on the industrial infrastructure created during the Japanese colonial period and (Modern Industries, Mircheastomian, 1992.)

China: Joseon modern education system developed rapidly under Japanese rule. The Japanese Governors Office sought to modernize education in Joseon by introducing the Japanese education system. Joseons educational accomplishments during that time greatly contributed to the subsequent modernization and development of the country(Yin, Bao-yun, Why did Korea succeed, Wen-jin Publishers, 1993.)

Comment
There are those who believer that Japans colonial rule greatly contributed to Koreas development into a modern nation. This view accepts Japans justification of its colonization of Korea.

In other words, according to some Japanese scholars, Koreas backward economic structure was replaced and the groundwork for a modern capitalist economy laid during the Japanese occupation of Korea. For examples, there are those who maintain that Korea achieved significant industrialization during the Japanese occupation because of a land survey, plans to increase rice production and the construction of plants for making war materials. All of the above were initiated by the Japanese, but it was dont to exploit the resources of Korea.

Moreover, the incipient development of capitalism in Korea during the Japanese occupation was not intended to benefit the Korean people. Rather, it was intended to exploit Korean resources for Japanese economic development. That is, Korea was forced by Japan into an abnormal form of modernization which only benefited Japan. Koreas independent attempts at modernization which were made prior to Japans colonization, never had a chance to materialize due to Japans annexation of the country.

Koreas fast economic growth in recent decades was driven by abundant and high-quality labor, a high regard for education, and a strong sense of industriousness. The legacy of the Japanese occupation left nothing but negative practices in Korea, including a Jaebeol (conglomerate) oriented economy and collusion between politicians and businessman. Therefore, the argument that Japans actions benefited Korea fails to appreciate the enormous hardship suffered by Koreans under Japanese colonial rule. Furthermore, such a claim ranks with statements made by some Japanese politicians who attempt to justify Japans military expansion in Asia prior to and during World War II as the liberation of Asian countries from Western colonial rule.

Examples of Distortions
China: In early June 1937, a unit of the Joseon Peoples Liberation Army led by Gim Ilseong, broke through the rugged region of the Amnok River and invaded Bochunbo.(Senior High School, World History (3), Peoples Education Press, 1993.)

Poland: In April 1932, a guerrilla force was organized by Gim Ilseong, who had been fighting for Koreas liberation since he was 14 years old, in the Baekdu mountain region, and he became commander of the Peoples Liberation Army. Gim led the unified front against Japan and was elected as the commander in 1936. (Alexandra Dominique, Korean History, Katovicze, 1992.)

Comment
In regard to anti-Japanese activities by Koreans during the Japanese occupation, only the guerrilla activities led by Gim Ilseong are mentioned while nationalist anti-Japanese movements are rarely mentioned or are completely omitted. In reality, however, Gims guerrilla activities were only one of many anti-Japanese independence efforts made by Koreans. Beginning in the late 19th century, countless Koreans fought against imperial Japans intrusion and continued the anti-Japanese struggle even after colonization.

During Japans 35-year colonial rule of Korea, resistance never ceased. First, resistance came to a climax with the March First Independence Movement of 1919, which was a non-violent, civil demonstration to make the world aware of the Korean peoples desire for independence. Beginning on March 1, independence demonstrations spread throughout Korea, and thousands of people were killed by the Japanese military during their ruthless suppression. Thereafter, Korean resistance forces were formed in the Manchuria area and fought against the Japanese military. The Battle of Pong-o-dong and the Battle of Cheongsan-ri(Chingshan-ri in Chinese) were large-scale battles during which the Korean forces crushed the Japanese forces.

Second, a Provisional Government of Korea in exile was established in China and led the anti-Japanese movement abroad. In 1940, the Provisional Government formed an alliance with the Chinese Government and established the Korean Liberation Army. Moreover, the Provisional Government declared war on Japan and fought on the side of the Allies in World War II. During the War, the Korean Liberation Army formed an alliance with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) of the United States and carried out special training in preparation for military operations on the Korean Peninsula. The Korean Liberation Armys anti-Japanese efforts continued in China, Manchuria and as far as the Indian and Burmese fronts.

Despite such historic facts, some foreign textbooks (especially those published in socialist countries) misrepresent the independence efforts of Koreans as being led by socialists, including Gim Ilseong. They need to be revised as quickly as possible to accurately reflect the whole story of the liberation efforts

Examples of Distortions
Russia: There was great tension between the two countries Syngman Rhee insisted on invasion of the North. There were numerous confrontation in the areas near the 38th Parallel and military activities were initiated on June 25, 1950. (Secondary School Social Studies for 11th graders, Modern History 1939-1992, Prosvichenie, 1993.)

China: In the dawn of June 25th, the U.S. and the Rhee Syngman regime, after having made all the necessary war preparations started a large scale offensive against the North on all fronts along the 38th Parallel. (Dong Sheng Xu, Wei Li, Commentary on Contemporary International Issues, Social Science Documents Publishers, 1992.)

Comment
There are two major contentions concerning the outbreak of the Korean War: the North invaded the South and the South invaded the North. The former postulates that the Korean War was started by an attack on the South by North Korea supported by the Soviet Union and China as part of a master plan to communize all of Asia. The latter postulates that the US and South Korea started the war jointly.

All the evidence confirms that the invasion was begun by the North against the South, and this is now widely acknowledged and accepted as undeniable.

The Korean War broke out on June 25, 1950 as a result of an invasion of the South by North Korea, which was seeking to unify the entire Korean Peninsula under Communist rule. The all-out, preemptive attack had been carefully planned and prepared in advance.

The circumstances at the time the war broke out clearly testify to that effect. On the day of the attack, only one-third of the South Korean Army was on duty because the rest had been given leaves of absence the day before to returned to their homes to help out in the peak farming season. Thus the South Korean Army as not able to properly defend Seoul and the city was seized in three days. In addition, there was a huge gap between the North and South Korean armies in size and number of weapons and equipment. At the time of the outbreak of the war, the North Korean army was twice the size of the South Korean Army. While the North Korean Army had one tank division and one air force division, the South Korean Army did not have either a single tank or a fighter plane; it was not only short of personnel but also lacked equipment. Under these poor conditions, the South was overwhelmed by the North.

The fact that the invasion was led by the North is more clearly evidenced by documents captured from the North Korean Army during the war and the classified documents from that period that were recently delivered to the South Korean Government by the Russian Government. Example include Reconnaissance Order No.1 dated June 15, 1950 and issued by the General Staff of the North Korean Peoples Army to each division and Combat order No.1 dated June 22, 1950 issued by the Soviet Military Advisory Staff to each division through the General Staff of the North Korean Peoples Army.

It is thus clear that the Korean War was caused by an attack from the North, and this is supported by the circumstances at the time of the outbreak of the war, the significant gap in the power and readiness of the North and South Korean armies at the time and disclosure of relevant documents by the former Communist countries after the collapse of the Cold War system.

Examples of Distortions
England: The economic miracle of Korea was based on cheap labor, and the cost of labor constituted only 8 percent of a companys average cost. Many worker earn 80 pounds a month which is not even the minimum wage level. (Secondary School Social Studies, Work, Employment and Development, Collins, 1994.)

France: Social cost for the miracle is very high. Labor conditions are very poor. While work-related injuries frequently occur, legal protection is inadequate. Wages are low and work hours are long. (Secondary School Geography, Geographic, Nathan, 1995.)

Comment
The wages of Korean workers have greatly increased since the late 80s. In fact, wages have increased so much that they are higher than those in competitor nations such as Taiwan or Hong Kong, although they are not as high as in developed nations. Considering the fact that increase in wages have surpassed productivity and have thus become a cause of weakened profitability and a loss of international competitiveness, the statement that Korea is a country with cheap labor is not correct.

In Korea, the movement to improve labor conditions in the 60s and 70s reached a peak in the mid-80s. In 1987, there were a total of 3,749 labor disputes, 67.9 percent involving wages and 15 percent work conditions. At present the average monthly wages of a Korean worker has increased greatly and a 44-hour workweek is prescribed by the 1989 Labor Standards Act.

Polish sources state that the work environment for Korean workers is harsh and describes the Korean people as workaholics. That description might have applied in the 60s, but now both the law and Labor Unions limit the number of work hours a week.

Examples of Distortions
China: Many scholars worked together to create the 28 vowels and consonants by studying the Korean language and the combining it with the Chinese Language.(Junior High School, World History (1), Peoples Education Press, 1993.)

US: The Korean alphabet was created by borrowing from Chinese characters... (Secondary School History, History of the Human Community, Prentice Hall, 1993.)

Comment
Koreans have, since ancient times, had a distinct language, different from Chinese; however, they lacked an alphabet for the Korean language this caused much trouble, especially because the Chinese characters, which were borrowed for a long time, were difficult to learn and were not fully adequate for writing Korean. For this reason, King Sejong (r.1415-1450), and a group of scholars commissioned by him, created Hangeul, a unique alphabet for the Korean language and promulgated it in 1446. It is considered the most scientific alphabet in existence and one of the easiest to learn. Since this time, therefore, Koreans have been able to write their language without using Chinese characters, although many characters are used with Hangeul for words borrowed from Chinese. Korea is one of the few nations that have an alphabet exclusively for its own language.

Hangeul is a phonetic alphabet created on scientific principles and can be used to transcribe almost any sound. It is completely different from Chinese characters which are ideograms. It is thus incorrect to say that the Hangeul alphabet borrowed from the Chinese.

In a Philippine textbook, it is wrongly stated that although Korean and Japanese do not belong to the same language family, they are somehow interrelated. It goes on to state that the Korean language has adopted the Chinese style of writing which is also incorrect.

A mistake that foreigners often make is to search for the roots of all elements of Korean culture in China. Textbooks that imply that the Hangeul alphabet was influenced by Chinese characters must be corrected as a matter of priority

Examples of Distortions
Poland: Because of the geographical and strategic conditions as well as natural resources, Korea was subject to constant battles between China and Japan and was much influenced by both countries. (Alexandra Dominique, Korea History, Katovicze, 1992.)

Taiwan: Since the establishment of Joseon by Kija, Korean has received a seal from China. Korea is a country which shows the most Chinese influence among all of Chinas neighboring countries because it was subject to the teachings of Chinese culture. (Senior High School, Geography, National Institute for Compilation and Chinese Translation, 1994.)

Comment
Most writings on Korea focus on modern history and therefore only a few deal with Korean history before the modern era. Even these few references overly emphasize the influence of China and Japan and the effect of foreign invasions and occupation. Examples found in these sources usually describe Korea as having been continuously influenced by the cultures of China and Japan.

Historically, from the time of Gojoseon (37 B.C. -A.D. 668) and Balhae (698-926), Korean territory extended into almost all of Manchuria, and Korea was powerful enough to stand against China. Culturally, Korea developed its own distinct culture, which included such things as woodblock printing, movable metal type and Hangeul, a phonetic alphabet for the Korean language.

Especially in relation to Japan, Korea was a conduit for culture from the Three Kingdoms era (18 B.C. ? A.D. 668) until the Joseon Kingdom (1392-1910) when special envoys were dispatched to that country. The period when Korea was the recipient of Japanese culture was during the Japanese colonial occupation from 1910 to 1945.

Some people mistakenly think that Japan had a considerable influence on Korea because they overlook Korea as only a small peninsula attached to the Asian mainland. This is a frequent misconception in the textbooks of many countries. However, Korea has maintained a unique culture for Thousands of years, despite its relatively small size and has both contributed to and mistake to try to find the roots of Korean culture solely in China. This must be corrected by publicizing the originality of the Korean historic and cultural experience and the uniqueness of the Korean national identity.

Examples of Distortions
Japan: Together with the receipt of the culture from the Continent, the contribution of visitors from the Continent was great, and once a country ruled by law had been established, their descendants were hired by the government. (High School, Japanese History, Daiichigakusyu Publishers, 1994.)

In the sixth century, Confucianism, which is the teachings of Chinas Confucius, and Buddism, which was advocated by Indias Sakyamuni, have been transferred. (Elementary School Social Studies for sixth graders, Trends in Japan, Chyukyo Publishers, 1992.)

Comment
The vague reference in the first textbook is intended to obscure the fact that the visitors were from Korea and is meant to give the impression that culture from the Continent was directly received rather that transmitted through Korea. This is thus a distortion of historic fact.

It is generally acknowledged that culture is transmitted from a more advanced to a lesser-advanced country. Visitors from Korea brought to Japan Chinese characters, literature and Buddhism, among other things, so that the Yamato Administration benefited from this advanced culture. Furthermore, the introduction of technology and advanced agricultural techniques contributed greatly to improving Japanese Society.

Among the ancient Three Kingdoms Goguryeo(37 B.C. ? A.D.668), Baekje(18 B.C.-A.D. 660) and Silla(57 B.C.-A.D. 935)- Baekje was the most active in spreading culture to Japan. Baekje people sailed to Japan and taught Chinese characters, Buddhism, music and art. As a result, the Asuka culture Flourished. Goguryeo also disseminated Buddhism and Confucianism, as well as the knowledge of how to make paper and ink-sticks. The murals of Horyu Temple, which are considered as treasures in Japan, were painted by the Goguryeo monk, Damjing. Silla taught Japan embankment and shipbuilding skill. These examples show that, during the Three Kingdoms period, Koreans transmitted advanced technology to Japan and contributed greatly to the birth of the Yamato Administration and to advancement of Asuka culture

Examples of Distortions
China: Generally, the family elder has his own table at mealtimes. It is taboo for father-in-law and daughter-in-law or a brother-in-law and sister-in-law to eat together at the same table. (Guidelines on Trade and Investment in Korea, Jilin University Publishers, 1993.)

Germany: These are nothing to do women. Korean women have had a very inferior social status because the moral law influenced by Confucianism emphasized the authority of patriarchs only. This tendency has rarely been changed in modern Korean society, which is represented by the lack of women in leadership position in both the economy and politics. (Secondary School Geography of Japan, China, and Korea, Der Asiatich Pazifische Raum, Oldenbourg, 1990.)

Comment
It is no longer true that a Korean father-in-law cannot sit at the same table with his daughter-in-law or brother-in-law with his sister-in-law. In fact, in modern households, families usually sit together at the dinner table. Such habits have almost completely disappeared and survive only in a very few traditional households and as a quaint custom.

Some foreign textbooks and other writings say that in Korea there is severe gender discrimination. This is an exaggeration, although it cannot be entirely denied that Confucian traditions still remain.

Korean women maintain their maiden names even after marriage. This is a good example of gender equality, which is difficult to find in other countries.

In addition, today, there are many women leaders in all areas of society, including politics and economy. In education, women play an important role, especially in the area of elementary education.

Other foreign sources appear to misunderstand the Korean character. It is stated that the first impression a Korean gives is somewhat tense and unkind. Koreans prove, however, to be very friendly and caring once they have known someone for a while. Traditionally, outbursts of emotion were frowned upon, and this may explain the tendency of Koreans not to use emotional facial expressions. Koreans, however, are becoming more outgoing.

Examples of Distortions
U.S.: The metal typefaces which had been first invented in China were actually used first by Koreans. (Secondary School History, World History, Prentice Hall, 1992.)

The metal prints were first invented in China in about 13th century and the technology was spread to Korea and Japan (Secondary School Social Studies, Global Studies II, Barrons, 1993.)

Comment
Ancient Koreans strove to preserve information by inscribing on rock and with the use of wood block printing. During the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C-A.D. 935), Buddhist scriptures were printed with wood blocks. The Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392) also endeavored to print many books which were kept in the royal library for the use of students and scholars.

In the 11th century, Goryeo printed numerous volumes of Buddhist scriptures using wood blocks. However, wood blocks were not efficient in producing a large number of copies in a short period of time to fulfill the demand for books. In the 12th century, bronze type was invented after Goryeo lost countless volumes due to fire during wartime. Goryeo needed to meet the demand for the quick reprinting of a large number of books for a relatively small number of people. The invention of metal type was revolutionary in that it was more efficient and allowed for the quick reproduction of documents.

In 1234, a book entitled Gogeum sangjeong yemun(Manual of Ancient and Modern Rituals) was printed with metal type during and invasion by the Mongols. It is believed that this book was the first material in the world printed with movable metal type, but it is difficult to prove as no copy remains today. However another scripture entitled

Buljo jikji simche yojeol (The Selected Sermons of Buddhist Sages and Seo Masters) was printed with movable metal type in 1377. It is preserved at the French National Library. In 1972, this scripture was recognized internationally as the oldest extant work printed with movable metal type.

The advancement of Goryeo printing technology resulted in the improvement in the skill of producing long-lasting, high absorbent paper, as well as high quality ink sticks. Te quality of Goryeo ink sticks was famous, and they were even exported to China during the Sung Dynasty. Such advanced technologies contributed greatly to literary and academic advancement as well.

It was long thought that the first metal type was invented by Johannes Gutenberg (1397-1468) in about 1450. However, not many seem to appreciate the contribution made by Goryeos advanced printing technology to the development of printing and the advancement of culture

Examples of Distortions
Japan: The Yi Dynasty became a tributary state of Ming. (High School, Detailed World History, Yamakawa Publishers, 1994.)

China: In 1948, the Republic of Korea was established in the southern part of the Joseon Peninsula. (Junior High School, World Geography (1), 1993.)

Comment
The correct name of a country should always be used as the name symbolizes the country, and this holds true for both names used in the past as well as a name used in the present. The correct use of past names recognizes the countrys history and legitimacy. In this light, the use of the term Yi Dynasty to refer to the dynasty during the Joseon Kingdom should be corrected.

The term Yi Dynasty was used by Japanese colonial scholars to deny the legitimacy of Joseon and rationalize their colonial rule. It is true that there are also some Koreans who use the incorrect term Yi Dynasty without an understanding of the motive behind the creation of the term. It is necessary, therefore, to correct the misuse of the term among Koreans as well as by foreigners in their scholarship on Korea.

Examples of Distortions
US: Secondary School Social Studies, Two Centuries of Progress, Glencoe, 1992. Secondary School Social Studies, The Heritage of World Civilization, McMillan, 1994.

Comment
In most world maps and atlases used internationally today, Koreas East Sea is indicated as the Sea of Japan, and therefore an immediate correction is warranted.

Historically, Korea has been used the term East Sea in writings since 59 B.C. Examples can be found in numerous records including the Monument of King Gwanggaeto(411), the Samguksagi (History of the Three Kingdoms, 1145) and the Samgungnyusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, 1284). Moreover, the still extant Atlas of Eight Provinces in the Sinjeung dongguk yeoji seungnam (A revised edition of the Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea, 1530) uses the term East Sea.

A map of Korea which was officially created in the mid-18th century also used the name, East Sea. Hence, there is much evidence that East Sea has been used for centuries.

China used the term, East Sea, during the Liao Dynasty (916-1125), the Sung Dynasty (960-1279), the Chin Dynasty (1122-1234), the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), and the Qing (Cheong) Dynasty (1644-1912).

As for Russian maps, in 1687, Nic Witzens Noord en Oost Tartarye refers to the East Sea as Oceanus Orientals. N. Gomans 1725 map uses the term Eastern Ocean, and in a 1734 map, I. Kirilov refers to the East Sea as a Vostochnoe, meaning East Sea. The Map of Asia printed by the renown Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1745 also refers to the East Sea as Koreiskoe Mope, or Sea of Korea. Other famous maps printed in Russia from 1745 or 1791 use the term Sea of Korea. The Russians called the East Sea the Sea of Korea in their last officially published map of 1844.

Until 1870, even Japanese maps referred to the East Sea as the Sea of Joseon. All of the following maps refer to the East Sea as the Sea of Joseon. The 1810 Sintei bankokuzenzu, the 1838 Bankoku zenzu, the 1850 Chigaku seisozu, the 1855 Chikyu bankokuzenzu, and the 1870 Meizikaitei bankokuyochibunzu. However, all maps published in Japan thereafter refer to the East Sea as the Sea of Japan. From this, it can be inferred that the Japanese government directed, as a matter of policy, that the name Sea of Japan be used.

There are many European maps which identified the East Sea as the Sea of Korea. These include a 1615 Portuguese map, a 1647 English map, a map published in the 1744 and 1752 editions of a world atlas and a 1750 French map. Furthermore, Sea of Korea appears in the first edition of the 1771 Encyclopedia Britannica.

Historically speaking, the East Sea has been used for a long time not only in Korea but also in neighboring countries such as China, Russia, and Japan, as well as in Europe.

In documents written since the early 1970s, many citizens and scholars have pointed out the unreasonableness of naming the East Sea the Sea of Japan. The Korean Government continues to contact renowned map publishers, broadcasting companies, newspaper companies and magazine publishers throughout the world and to request that they use the name East Sea in lieu of Sea of Japan.

To change the Sea of Japan to the East Sea will not be easy. The term Sea of Japan has been in use for a long time and such habits are hard to break.

Nevertheless, the name East Sea was in use for a much longer time and Sea of Japan is a legacy of Koreas colonial period and perpetuates the injustice of the past and, therefore, is not acceptable to Koreans. Hence, concerted efforts must be made at both the government and private level to publicize the appropriateness of the use of the name East Sea which is a neutral name.

Examples of Distortions
US: Encyclopedia of the UN and International Relations, Taylor and Francis, 1992. Japan: Middle School Social Studies, Geography, Gakko-tosho Publishers, 1994, map on page 112.

Comment
Dokdo is a small rocky island in the middle of the East Sea at north latitude 37 14 18 and east longitude 131 59 22. It is located about 49 nautical miles from Ulleungdo which is Korean territory and 86 nautical miles from Japanese island of Okishima.

From the 15th century, during the Joseon Kingdom (1392-1910), the island was called Usando, and the name was changed to Dokdo in 1883.

Until the early sixth century, Dokdo and Ulleungdo were called Usan-guk (The country of Usan). Usan-guk was incorporated into the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C-A.D. 935) in 512, the 13th year of the monarch, Jijeungwang (r. 500-514). Since this time it has been Korean territory. This is confirmed by an entry in the Samguksagi (History of the three Kingdoms) published in 1145.

In addition, many other ancient records and documents, such as the Sejong Sillok Jiriji (Geographical Appendix to the Veritable Records of King Sejong) published in 1432, the Goryeosa Jiriji (Geographical Appendix to the History of Goryeo), published in the mid-15th century and the Sukjong Sillok (Veritable Record of King Sukjong), among others, state that Usando (Dokdo) became part of the territory of the Silla Kingdom. Thus, from 512 until the present, Dokdo has been an integral part of Korean territory.

The first ancient Japanese record which mentions Dokdo is the Onshu shicho goki (What Was Seen or Heard About Onshu) published in 1667. What is significant about this document is that it states that Dokdo and Ulleungdo are part of the territory of the Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392) and that the island of Okishima is japans farthest northwestern border. Thus, even the very first Japanese record which mentions Dokdo acknowledges that it is Korean territory.

The Sankoku setsujo chizu (A Territorial Map of Three Nations), made by the famous Japanese scholar Kohei Hayashi in 1785, indicated the territory of Korea and Japan in different colors so as to clearly show the borders between the two countries. On this map, Joseon was depicted in yellow and Japan in green. Ulleungdo and Dokdo which were accurately located were colored yellow, indicating that they were part of Joseon territory. Moreover, there was writing next to the two islands stating that they are Joseon territory. All the Japanese Army and Navy maps during the Meiji Government period repeated confirmed that the two islands were a part of Joseon territory.

During the Japanese occupation of Korea, Dokdo became Japanese territory, as did all of Korea. With Japans unconditional surrender on August 15, 1945, Korea was liberated from Japan. In SCAPIN-677, Governmental and Administrative Separation of Certain Outlying Areas from Japan which was Annex I to Directive (No. 677) of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers to the Japanese Government to Implement the Instrument of Surrender and which was dated January 29, 1946, Dokdo was acknowledged as being excluded from Japanese territory and thus as Korean territory. In addition, on June 22, 1946, in order No. 1033, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers prohibited the entry of Japanese fishing ships and other ships within 12 nautical miles of Dokdo. As a result, Dokdo was completely reclaimed as Korean territory.

In a diplomatic document dated January 28, 1952 and sent to the Republic of Korea in protest against the proclamation of the Peace Line, Japan began claiming ownership of Dokdo. This was the beginning of the dispute with Japan over the ownership of Dokdo.

All documents and records unequivocally prove that Dokdo has been Korean territory since 512. For this reason, the Korean Government does not recognize that Dokdo is an area in dispute. Japan lacks any evidence for its claim because it is completely unfounded. Therefore from a historical perspective and in international law, there is no valid dispute over the ownership of Dokdo; it is clearly Korean territory.